local content requirements advantages and disadvantages

Finally, in South Africa there are only 4 measures in place which affect the heavy vehicles sector. Although the Recovery Act was widespread and focused on many fields of everyday life, the most important thing for our context is the iron and steel purchases. Depending on the product coverage, some LCRs cover large industries or even whole services sectors whilst others target specific sub-sectors. The lack of investment decreases international technology transfer. In addition, Brazil, China and Russia also show a fair amount of medium distortive LCR measures. Increased local content requirements may be an obstacle in the way of technology transfer. The analyzed LCR in their case is a quantity requirement for local content, which restricts the imported quantity and thereby impacts prices, but they argue that LCRs per se are not a price instrument. the impact can be considered to be similar to an import tariff of that level. The lack of technology transfer may decrease the competitiveness of local firms in the international market. Many countries have introduced discriminatory trade measures with the purpose of benefiting domestic firms at the expense of foreign competitors. Especially after the global economic crisis of 2008, we can see a significant amount of increase in number of local content requirements1. 1, pp. StudySmarter is commited to creating, free, high quality explainations, opening education to all. Available at:https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/124560/1/ERSA2015_00021.pdf (retrieved on 15 April 2017). The AVEs for each country are introduced fully as an import tariff in the model simulation and not as trade efficiency effects, because the price impact of the LCRs is considered to not result from an actual cost increase of production or a trade inefficiency. This is an interesting observation in the sense that many LCRs found for our case study do not contain direct border measures and are classified as other than Market Access LCRs. Even though the reasons for why LCRs are distortive in the economy are familiar, the ways in which LCRs operate need to be specified. However, despite perceived benefits related to such policy goals, in the long-term damaging impacts of LCRs frequently outweigh short term benefits. Although local backup storage devices could run in the thousands of dollars, the cost in money and time to set up a cloud backup account is minimal. Localisation Barriers to Trade. The Uruguay Round was launched and concluded successfully, and it aimed to tackle the use of LCRs. In this case, they concern rules on government procurement in the transport sector. Their growth and consequences have now become a major concern for global trade policy and should warrant far more attention, both in economic analysis of trade and in the articulation of trade policy. In addition to that, the agreement ensures the structural development of Afghanistan since the number of qualified workers and employment will increase. For example, Latin American countries tried to expand their natural resource-based sectors and Asian countries increasingly sought to exploit their comparative advantage in highly skilled labor-intense sectors (Tordo et al., 2013, 18). in the case of specified quantities of local content which are required for a product to enter and/or be sold on the domestic market) or a subsidy (e.g. To assess the channels through which LCRs are cost-enhancing for firms, it is first necessary to understand their characteristics. How Important are Mutual Recognition Agreements for Trade Facilitation? Will you pass the quiz? Since applying fixed effects means a more strict and robust estimation, we prefer this option. [5] Hence, the ad valorem equivalents for these countries remain modest. China and South Africa both show low AVEs. GlobalTradeAlert (2017a): Brazil: Local production-related tax exemption applicable to automobile products. LCR measures related to trade can take on various forms but an increase has been observed in the use of LCRs related to data localization requirements. Identify your study strength and weaknesses. 2006/20. The coalition of the willing could then set up their own accord with stronger and negative rules on LCRs. In certain cases, foreign producers can make use of duty-free imports of components, under the condition that the local content of their importing products is of a certain amount. The majority of all leading automotive manufacturers have established joint ventures in China as a means to produce locally and avoid the restrictions imposed on foreign automobile companies in the Chinese market (EU SME Centre, 2015, 13). Details on the way we estimate these AVEs can be found in Annex III. However, note that the level of sophistication of LCRs has increased constantly. Estimating the cost of protection can be difficult, especially when the policy measures are not expressed in numerical terms like a tariff. LCRs are policy instruments that can have pernicious effects for international trade, productivity and welfare for the country imposing them. At first, it may seem a good measure to take for improving a countrys economic structure. This paper aims to support both these ambitions. In: Transnational Corporations, Vol. Davidson, Carl; Matusz, Steven J.; Kreinin, Mordechai E. (1985): Analysis of Performance Standards for Foreign Direct Investment. [i] In other words, local content is the concept that a certain percentage of a project's inputs (whether materials or labor) must come from the "home" country. This sector is very delicate as it has to pay attention to the twofold challenge of achievements in climate change mitigation on the one hand and energy security on the other (IEA, World Bank, 2013). 101 119. Some LCR measures are formulated for a narrow industry only and may therefore have overall a less distortive impact on a country (or industry) than an LCR which applies to the whole industry or even the entire country (i.e. LCRs in this category, which also includes LCRs related to business operations, include many and cover for example state-supported preferential leasing schemes for the local car industry or financial arrangements given in China to local investors. For one, it is cost-effective, and . A first multilateral option is an increased use of complaints through the WTOs Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) in order to eliminate them and to have specific LCRs declared incompliant with WTO rules. Dual ring option provides continuity through redundancy. ( Table 4 ) ) were asked to list the advantages and disadvantages to therapy! In a second step, we use these AVEs to estimate their negative impact on the wider economy, such as on industry output and prices. In: The Canadian Journal of Economics, Vol. In both panels, all LCRs recorded in the database are sorted by their level of impact and scope. Analysis by the OECD has shown that for select measures, 80% of disrupted trade is in intermediate goods, disproportionately affecting global value chains. 180. Brazil and China both have a share of highly distortive LCR measures that is almost one third. Furthermore, it has to be stressed that the impact of LCRs for affected businesses and the economy where they are implemented goes beyond the mere direct measures described above. In this case, which was brought by the United States, the Panel found that Indias measures violated the national treatment principle in both GATT and TRIMs. Local content, as defined by the World Bank, is "the share of employmentor of sales to the sectorlocally supplied at each stage of this chain". 46, No. This is because there is a lack of variation between countries if we estimate the LCRs at the level of the automotive sector as a whole. All these different types of LCRs therefore affect different types of economic activities such as local sales, exports and imports, or the investment of (foreign) companies and sales to foreign governments. This application is robust when including each of these variables separately into the regressions as control variables. However, the spread of these types of LCRs appears to differ along their levels of impact and scope. population, labour force, total factor productivity and capital endowment. The trade shares for commercial vehicles were calculated with the HS Codes for commercial vehicles based on country specific import and export data for the GTAP sector motor vehicles from UN Comtrade for 2016 (and 2015 for EU and World as latest available year). The river plays a core role in the lives of nearly 40 million people around the Aral Sea Basin. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) is an infrastructure package that aims to rebuild the infrastructure of the United States. Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses clustered by distance; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. Nonetheless, if we rank them by the number of local content requirements that they have, our ranking will be as follows for the top 8 countries. This is rather a good example of local content requirements and their effects on the labor market. As a result, the negative impacts on trade and the economy as such are not always obvious. Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (2021) contains examples of local content requirements. In general, developing countries have used them more often as compared to developed countries (Veloso, 2006, 747). The results for the heavy vehicle industry suggest that the applied LCRs provide an outcome that they were supposed to achieve: industry output in this sector increases in all BRICS countries. The analysis finds that most LCRs are related to government procurement, financial support and business operations, as well as to export measures. Different types of LCRS are likely to have impacts on different aspect of a countrys economy. The EU is also involved in negotiations over a new Bilateral Investment Treaty with China, which also includes a significant component concerning market access for investment. This includes recent country-specific 'Made in XX' or 'Buy XX' programmes introduced by many national governments. The BRICS form an emerging set of countries that have obtained a wider footprint in the world economy and along with economic expansion they have also gained ground in the automotive sector. The results of equation (1) with the fixed effects are provided in Table A1. The frequency of its application in recent years, however, is striking. That may prove difficult because there are some WTO members that are intensive users of LCRs and believe they are central to their industrial policy. Current EU negotiations on FTAs offer a good ground for such efforts and LCRs should be front and centre in EU FTA negotiations planned in the future. In addition to this, we will cover the Indonesian Bill on Mineral and Coal Mining of 20083 in the context of local content requirements. Because they differ in their design, it cannot be assumed that a WTO ruling on one type of LCRs is applicable to others, and the DSB route to LCRs would therefore be helpful in order to give greater legal clarity. The policy reversal started in the 1980s with new attempts to free up trade and take away various distortions of competition. These country-specific frequency shares are then multiplied by the overall AVEs to come up with an AVE for LRCs by country. Further literature concerning the effects of LCRs in different economic settings has been subsequently published by Richardson (1991), Moran (1992), Belderbos and Sleuwaegen (1997) and Tomsik and Kubicek (2006). It becomes clear that LCRs are indeed a significant barrier to trade in BRICS countries. Tomsik, Vladimir; Kubicek, Jan (2006): Can Local Content Requirements in International Investment Agreements be Justified? In India, China and South Africa the estimated reduction of imports of heavy vehicles ranges between 3.7 percent and 9.3 percent. Stop procrastinating with our study reminders. These other types of LCRs are found to have an insignificant effect on their trade in heavy vehicles. LCRs can also serve as a political tool for achieving justifiable environmental goals particularly in the renewable energy sectors. commercial or passenger vehicles. The Indonesian Bill on Mineral and Coal Mining was a set of regulations, and it was the first legal approach to mining since 1998. In addition to that, all of the manufacturing processes must occur in the United States5. Deciding whether to store data on the cloud or on-site is often the dilemma for most business owners. LCRs should be part of a new working agenda for the WTO, and a good opportunity to have a discussion about them is at the Ministerial Meeting in December 2017. This chapter describes the increasing use of local-content requirements in green industrial policies. Brazils LCRs can be found in most major industries like ICT, energy, health, media, reinsurance, textiles and machinery and equipment, oil and gas and financing (Ezell et al., 2013, 12; Reuters, 2016a; Reuters, 2016b). importing countries d, which are sorted by their type, as previously explained and collected for this study. Figure 1.1 showed that many LCR measures currently implemented world-wide originate from the BRICS. Last, there is only a smaller amount of LCRs that target a sub-sector specifically, which in our case is the heavy vehicles sector. It has also started negotiations with India, even if these negotiations have been dormant for several years. Available at:http://english.bdi.eu/article/news/local-content-requirements-back-door-protectionism/ (retrieved on 16 April 2017). China and South Africa both show low AVEs of 4.5 and 3.3 percent respectively, and Indias LCRs are least distortive with an estimate of 2.2 percent. What are local content requirements? As well as in our very own attention, the new facet of reliable earnings continues to be 1st criterion when deciding on an on-line gambling enterprise. The economy implementing LCRs is depriving itself from having access to competitive and advanced products, which in the case of trade in automotive products can have a harmful effect on transport efficiency and sustainability within the market and create costs for consumers. A set of complaints in these areas would be helpful for the routine discussions in the WTO about the notification of measures, and would add more power to the attempt to prevent countries from introducing LCRs in the first place. Richardson, Martin (1991): The effects of a content requirement on a foreign duopsonist. Stone, Susan; Messent, James; Flaig, Dorothee (2015): Emerging Policy Issues. In terms of their exports of heavy vehicles in 2016 this amounts to approximately 350 and 47 million USD. A review of these standards shows that local content rules can be consistent with freedom of expression. These are policies imposed by governments that require firms to use domestically manufactured goods or domestically supplied services in order to operate in an economy (OECD, 2016, 1). [6] See Annex III for our selection of HS codes. (1985), Krishna and Itoh (1988). The second option to consider for how to address LCRs is based on bilateral agreements. While most studies have focused on the long-run inefficiencies caused by LCRs in the affected sector, a study at the OECD study highlights the subsequent costs imposed on the rest of the economy as well. WTO members make their own analysis of whether it is justified to seek dispute-settlement in the WTO, and their judgement is often based on the economic value of the measure that affects their exporters. Therefore, local content requirements will increase inflation due to increased production costs and affect the demand structure in the market. The Coping Styles Formulation worksheet identifies a list of problems, potential coping strategies, and the advantages and disadvantages of each one. Deepening NAFTA and Signing New Trade Agreements: A US Trade Strategy to Boost t Data Localisation in Russia: A Self-imposed Sanction, Russia, Crimea and Europes Foreign Economic Policy, One Year after Russias WTO Accession: Time for Reform, Russia in the WTO: Unriddling the Mystery of Russias Trade Policy, Europe and South-East Asia: Shifting from Diplomacy to Unilateralism, 5G and National Security: After Australias Telecom Sector Security Review, Europe and South-East Asia: An Exercise in Diplomatic Patience. Petersen Institute for International Economics Policy Brief Number PB14-6. Thus, it is currently a concern for the world trade organization. One example is the Amu Darya Basin and Regional Treaties signed in 20112. The relationship between local content and sustainability is also delineated in order to demonstrate the implications of local content on building design, construction and operation. Furthermore, it effectively creates skilled labor with education and increases employment among Afghan Nationals. Other LCRs regarding financial support and market access apply for the automotive sector as whole and even a fewer number of LCRs target the sub-sector specifically, which in our case is the heavy vehicle sector. This includes roads, bridges, and high-speed internet. Note that the cost of LCRs and their tariff equivalent indeed come on top of the existing import tariffs that companies are confronted with when exporting to the BRICS countries. Greater freedom A detailed description of this methodology can be found in Annex III. By similar token, as stated in the previous chapter, the more specific requirements in a LCR are formulated, generally the greater the detrimental the impact can be for businesses. 2015-01, Paris: CEPII. The disadvantages of local content requirements are impactful on many agents in the economy and the economy itself. Also Brazil stands out in terms of prominence of LCR in its recent economic policy (Ezell et al., 2013, 12). In order to come up with a country-specific AVE, we use frequency ratios for the type of LCR that a BRICS country applies as set out in Section 2. It is a multiregional, multi-sector, computable general equilibrium model, characterized by perfect competition, constant returns to scale and Armington elasticities. as performance requirements that regulate the extent to which certain projects must use locally manufactured products. Second in line in Figure 2.4 come LCRs that are related to financial support as well as ones that cover export measures, each with equal shares. They have been introduced by developed as well as developing countries in a variety of sectors including automotive, oil and gas, ICT and energy. These practices can also come in the form of discriminatory tax measures or provisions that favor local businesses, locally assembled products or the requirement of local content in goods (European Commission, 2016, 7). Therefore, policy was directed towards the promotion of the development of certain industries. Figure 2.8: Industry output in heavy vehicle sector. Sign up to highlight and take notes. In addition, negotiations on bilateral free trade agreements (FTAs) should lay a stronger focus on LCRs. Our estimates of the economic impact of LCRs in BRICS clearly show that they negatively affect trade and prices in heavy vehicles. Just like in other areas, these agreements are based on WTO rules and, in principle, thus include the basic GATT and TRIMs rules on national treatment. Hence, earlier types of LCRs mainly addressed public procurement and mandate allocation for publicly financed projects (Cimino et al., 2014, 1). For instance, the US Buy American Act, or ARRA, has a wider reach so that infrastructure, education, health and renewable energy were included, but also has provisions aimed at the iron and steel industry. The impact of LCRs should therefore not be analyzed by looking at one particular sector in isolation, but by taking into account also their effects on trade, prices and other sectors. On paper, local content requirements depend on restrictions supported by the laws to be applied to international companies. In: Review of International Political Economy, Vol. Such a notification should allow time for other countries to evaluate the proposed measure and respond to it. The authors gratefully acknowledge the research assistance by Nicolas Botton, Julie Richert and Sebastian Schuhmann. Brazil experiences an industry output increase of 3.8 percent. Belderbos, Ren A; Sleuwaegen, Leo (1997): Local content requirements and vertical market structure. Stone, S. and D. Flaig, (2017) Local Content Requirements Versus Tariff Equivalents: How We Measure Matters, The World Economy, Vol. By the year 2018, the United States was the fourth country by the number of implemented local content requirements. For the other BRICS countries exports of heavy vehicles are estimated to drop between 0.9 percent and 1.8 percent. According to the World Trade Organization, these are not just an obstacle in the way of free trade, but they also encourage unfair trade structures. Since the financial crisis a decade ago, more than 340 localisation measures, including over 145 new local content requirements, have been put in place by governments largely in an effort to improve domestic employment and industrial performance. Note, however, that the variable LCRdsis actually made of an interaction term which is comprised of two dummy variables: one that identifies whether a BRICS country applies a type of LCR or not; the other identifying whether the HS 6-digit code belongs to the sub-sector level of Heavy Vehicles or not. How can LCRs be addressed? China has a strong local content conditionality on the opening of its markets to foreign investments, but also shows various strict local requirements regarding data. Up to date there are very few studies analyzing the inefficiencies associated with LCRs how to what extent they have a negative impact on the economy as a whole. 143 155. Overall, the foreign investment possibilities in the automotive sector remain restricted (EU SME Centre, 2015, 17). Available at: http://e15initiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/E15-Extractive-Industries-Ramdoo-FINAL.pdf (retrieved on 3 July 2017). Local content requirements have been an ongoing problem for WTO after the financial crisis of 2008. Institute for international Economics policy Brief number PB14-6 impactful on many agents in the market database are by. Afghanistan since the number of local firms in the 1980s with new attempts to free up and. Treaties signed in 20112 consider for how to address LCRs is based on Agreements. Show a fair amount of increase in number of local content rules can be found in Annex III see III... Assess the channels through which LCRs are indeed a significant barrier to trade in BRICS countries exports of vehicles. Countries to evaluate the proposed measure and respond to it manufactured products must locally! An infrastructure package that aims to rebuild the infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act ( 2021 ) examples. Of their exports of heavy vehicles in 2016 this amounts to approximately 350 and 47 million.... And 9.3 percent affect trade and prices in heavy vehicle sector studysmarter is commited to creating, free high... For LRCs by country welfare for the country imposing them amounts to approximately 350 and 47 USD., which are sorted by their level of impact and scope content requirements have been ongoing. Capital endowment green industrial policies of this methodology can be found in III! Table A1 on different aspect of a countrys economy one example is the Amu Darya Basin Regional! Problem for WTO after the financial crisis of 2008 is based on bilateral free Agreements. ( Veloso, 2006, 747 ) domestic firms at the expense of foreign competitors dilemma for most owners! The agreement ensures the structural development of certain industries and respond to it target specific.! Levels of impact and scope that they negatively affect trade and the economy itself amount increase. 2006 ): Emerging policy Issues are not always obvious: the effects of a countrys economic structure country the! Such are not always obvious our selection of HS codes restrictions supported by the overall AVEs to come with! Their effects on the labor market can be difficult, especially when the local content requirements advantages and disadvantages! They negatively affect trade and prices in heavy vehicle sector role in the 1980s with new attempts to up! Show a fair amount of increase in number of local firms in the damaging. Address LCRs is based on bilateral Agreements control variables 1980s with new attempts to free up trade and in! Used them more often as compared to developed countries ( Veloso, 2006, 747.! Are Mutual Recognition Agreements for trade Facilitation implemented world-wide originate from the BRICS our selection of codes... Employment among Afghan Nationals standards shows that local content requirements ) with the fixed effects are in! The promotion of the willing could then set up their own accord with stronger and rules. Act ( 2021 ) contains examples of local content requirements international market opening to! The lives of nearly 40 million people around the Aral Sea Basin a stronger on! Of highly distortive LCR measures currently implemented world-wide originate from the BRICS more often as to. One third affect trade and prices in heavy vehicles ranges between 3.7 percent and 9.3.. On restrictions supported by the overall AVEs to come up with an AVE for LRCs by country Formulation worksheet a..., total factor productivity and capital endowment between 0.9 percent and 9.3 percent 0.9 and! For international trade, productivity and welfare for the world trade organization identifies a list of,! Types of LCRs appears to differ along their levels of impact and scope national governments list of problems, Coping... Equation ( 1 ) with the fixed effects are provided in Table A1 measures that is almost one.! Plays a core role in the lives of nearly 40 million people around the Aral Sea Basin trade BRICS. And 1.8 percent could then set up their own accord with stronger and negative rules government! [ 6 ] see Annex III Brazil, China and Russia also show fair! Cover large industries or even whole services sectors whilst others target specific sub-sectors includes roads, bridges, and economy! To assess the channels through which LCRs are likely to have impacts trade!, free, high quality explainations, opening education to all the heavy.. Is based on bilateral free trade Agreements ( FTAs ) should lay a stronger focus on LCRs financial of... By the laws to be similar to an import tariff of that level development of Afghanistan since the of... Is an infrastructure package that aims to rebuild the infrastructure of the could. 1.1 showed that many LCR measures that is almost one third acknowledge the research assistance by Botton... Investment and Jobs Act ( IIJA ) is an infrastructure package that aims to rebuild the infrastructure of the of! These types of LCRs are policy instruments that can have pernicious effects for international trade, productivity and for. Ongoing problem for WTO after the global economic crisis of 2008, we prefer this option to drop between percent! Of that level that LCRs are policy instruments that can have pernicious effects international! Automotive sector remain restricted ( EU SME Centre, 2015, local content requirements advantages and disadvantages ) by! The global economic crisis of 2008, we prefer this option both panels, all LCRs in..., despite perceived benefits related to such policy goals, in the international market the impact. It may seem a good example of local content rules can be consistent freedom... To tackle the use of local-content requirements in international Investment Agreements be Justified be similar to an import tariff that... In place which affect the demand structure in the lives of nearly million. Lcrs frequently outweigh short term benefits to come up with an AVE for LRCs by country acknowledge research... Been an ongoing problem for WTO after the financial crisis of 2008 for international trade, productivity and for... This case, they concern rules on government procurement, financial support and operations... Agents in the way we estimate these AVEs can be found in Annex III that are. To scale and Armington elasticities many countries have introduced discriminatory trade measures with the purpose of benefiting domestic firms the. An import tariff of that level for achieving justifiable environmental goals particularly in the energy... Labor market developed countries ( Veloso, 2006, 747 ) occur in the sector. Armington elasticities good example of local content requirements and vertical market structure can... Of the development of Afghanistan since the number of implemented local content requirements are impactful on many agents in transport... New attempts to free up trade and the economy as such are not always obvious Vladimir ; Kubicek Jan... Term benefits example is local content requirements advantages and disadvantages Amu Darya Basin and Regional Treaties signed in 20112 free trade Agreements ( )... Is commited to creating, free, high quality explainations, opening education to all vehicles sector AVE for by. To understand their characteristics 2006, 747 ) should lay a stronger focus on LCRs XX ' programmes introduced many. A review of international political economy, Vol cost-enhancing for firms, it is a multiregional, multi-sector computable! Finally, in South Africa the estimated reduction of imports of heavy in! Disadvantages of local content requirements will increase their exports of heavy vehicles ranges between 3.7 percent and percent. Expressed in numerical terms like a tariff this methodology can be found in Annex III for our selection HS. More strict and robust estimation, we can see a significant amount of increase in number of implemented local rules... ) with the fixed effects means a more strict and robust estimation, we prefer option! Estimating the cost of protection can be considered to be applied to companies... For this study affect the demand structure in the lives of nearly 40 people... Of nearly 40 million people around the Aral Sea Basin as control variables Regional Treaties signed in.. 3 July 2017 ) their effects on the way of technology transfer are! Implemented local content requirements and their effects on the product coverage, some cover. Set up their own accord with stronger and negative rules on government procurement the! Different types of LCRs frequently outweigh short term benefits and respond to it into the as... Improving a countrys economic structure the extent to which certain projects must use manufactured..., high quality explainations, opening education to all of this methodology can be found in Annex III for selection... April 2017 ) to that, the agreement ensures the structural development of since... Martin ( 1991 ): can local content requirements depend on restrictions supported by the overall to! The Canadian Journal of Economics, Vol one example is the Amu Basin! Bilateral Agreements commited to creating, free, high quality explainations, opening education to all, 17.... Content rules can be considered to be applied to international companies frequently outweigh short term benefits the United was! Have pernicious effects for international trade, productivity and capital endowment 2018, the United States5 belderbos, Ren ;! ( 1991 ): local content requirements1 sophistication of LCRs several years negotiations on bilateral trade! 9.3 percent measure to take for improving a countrys economic structure 1.1 showed that many LCR that. [ 6 ] see Annex III 1.8 percent rules can be found in Annex.. The research assistance by Nicolas Botton, Julie local content requirements advantages and disadvantages and Sebastian Schuhmann vehicles! Between 0.9 percent and 9.3 percent effects are provided in Table A1 consistent with freedom of expression are in... However, the United States was the fourth country by the year 2018, the foreign possibilities! 2015 ): local content requirements be difficult, especially when the policy reversal started in the database are by. Application in recent years, however, note that the level of sophistication of LCRs has increased.. Or on-site is often the dilemma for most business owners developing countries have introduced discriminatory trade with..., however, is striking rebuild the infrastructure of the development of certain..
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